According to Weenolsen (1988) loss can be characterized as anything that destroys some aspect of life or self.According to Worden (2002) grief can be characterized as the experience of someone who has lost an important relationship or even an attachment to another person.These concepts can be directly related to the loss of a parent.Losing a parent can be extraordinarily difficult due to the loss of support and characteristics which identify the position and role of a parent as being very special (Despelder & Strickland, 2005).The grieving processes can mean different changes for those within different roles.Older adults who lose their parents do not process or grieve as a child who has lost their parent.I feel that both of these specific roles and experiences are of greatest importance.Issues of culture also maintain consistent changes across societies in how one works through or expresses the loss of their loved ones.Support for children and adults is a very important part of the grieving process and should be connected to characteristics of who children and adults are within their roles and how they respond to such loss.Due to modern technology only about 4 % of children experience the loss of a parent before the age of 18 yrs (Archer, 1999).In comparison, in the late 1700's to early 1800's many children were without parents, making life much more difficult for children (Fox & Quitt, 1980).One cannot discuss the loss of a parent to a child without discussing segments of attachment and other developmental theory.Attachment according to Davies (2004) is a special emotional relationship between two people.According to Archer (1999), Bowlby indicated that children are able to grieve and mourn when attachment processes become solidified around the age of six months to one year of age (Archer, 1999; Worden, 2002).According to Weenolsen (1988) reactions related to grief and mourning begin within the early stages of infancy and learning when the child begins to understand their control over the environment, slowly gaining differentiation and losing their dependency.The mourning of this loss in dependency through the child's ability to gain control over their environment does manifest crying and seeking out behaviors that train the child to respond in this manner to gain access to their care giver (Weenolson, 1988).This instinctive response will be further utilized during future separations and loss (Weenolsen, 1988).Rando (1988) also claims that infants mourn when their nurturance is withdrawn and the mother (primarily) must assist in re-establishing the nurturing connection, thus reducing separation.These theoretical positions seem to be consistent with Attachment Theory in that it is the separation that initiates reactions.Furthermore, one could not understand or comprehend separation if one did not realize their own ability in controlling environmental circumstances in order to meet ones needs.It seems apparent that regarding reaction or understanding the meaning of death by children one would require sufficient cognitive ability.The loss of a parent and the response is also due to what Bowlby characterizes as the loss of the child's "safe haven" or "secure base" to explore the world (Davies, 2004).One could hypothesize that this disruption of security would effect a child's exploration during toddler development, and at times hinder needed environmental interactions.According to Archer (1999) reactions by children during the mourning process due to the loss of a parent include; pining, preoccupation, yearning, seeking or calling.According to Littlewood (1992), Bowlby clarified that this reaction to loss as instinctive; and the seeking of the lost object (the parent) although fruitless, it is performed anyway.Although many reactions due to many types of circumstances are chosen by children as a response to emotional distress; these responses are considered specific to the loss of a parent (Archer, 1999).Furthermore, many of the emotional disturbances can bring with them depressive and anxious symptomatology; as well as sleep disturbances (Archer, 1999).Children age 2 to 5 yrs.Of age seem to ask many questions regarding the parental loss (Rando, 1988) They may display regressive behaviors, obsession over questions and circumstances, and may display anxiety and anger toward the deceased (Rando, 1988).There may also lay feelings of guilt and responsibility for the loss of the parental figure (Despelder & Strickland, 2005).Some of these reactions were clearly represented in my four year old son Jonathan who lost his grandmother this past year; he seemed to obsess over the funeral and what he had witnessed.Ages 8 to 12 yrs.May feel helpless and experience reawakened feelings of childlessness (Rando, 1988).Children at this age may seek to repress such feelings, putting them at risk for complicated grief reactions (Rando, 1988).This would be consistent with Eric Erickson's stages of psycho-social development in regards to the stage of "industry vs.Inferiority." According to Longress (2000) and Anderson, Carter & Lowe (1999) there is a push for the child to become "industrious" and confident during this stage of development.It seems clear that admitting ones childish and helpless feelings would be difficult during this period.According to Worden (2002) when a death of a parent occurs in childhood or adolescents the child may not mourn effectively and this may create problems with depression and inabilities to maintain close relationships with others (p.159).According to Rando (1988) depression, denial and anger are feelings that seek to counter act the helplessness, dependency and powerlessness that adolescents are feeling.This response seems consistent when examining Erickson's psycho-social stages (Berger, 2001; Longress, 2000; Anderson et.Al., 1999).During adolescents there is a pursuit to find ones "identity", and the parent is a role modeling figure who can assist with guiding and encouraging this process (Berger, 2001; Longress, 2000; Anderson et.Al., 1999).It is understandable how an adolescent may feel powerless, helpless, dependent, and even angry due to the death of their parental figure.In regards to meaning, Fiorini & Mullen ( Article ) clarify that it is very important to characterize the meanings of grief and loss through a developmental lens.According to Worden (2002), Murry Bowen clarified that one must understand the role and position of the dying parent within the family system, and the level of adaptive abilities of family members during and after the loss of a parent.I feel, as a social worker it is important with this information to better understand what this systemic loss means to the developing child within the family system.To many children the loss of a parent means a loss of stability, security, nurturing, and affection (Despelder & Strickland, 2005).According to Worden (2002) there are needed cognitive processes and concepts that must be developed before grief can be fully understood by children.The factors are as follows;.1.Understanding time; and what forever means.2.Transformation process.3.Irreversibility concept.4.Causation.5.Concrete Operations.According to Worden (2002).Figure 1.1.According to Archer (2002) children before the age of 5yrs.Believe that death is reversible.Many young children up to this point maintain a figurative representation within their minds of the lost parent and do not completely understand the permanency of the circumstance until cognitive maturation takes place (Despelder & Strickland, 2005; Rando, 1988).This would validate findings by Piaget in regards to object permanence and development of the cognitive processes of children (Berger, 2001).According to Archer (2002), Speece and Brent indicated that children from the age of 5 to 7yrs.Of age begin to understand the irreversibility of death.Furthermore, according to Archer (2002) children less than 7 to 8 yrs.Of age however, represented a lack of understanding regarding the word "death." This is consistent with Piaget according to Archer (2002) and Berger (2001), that in order to understand such a concept as death and irreversibility, ones conceptual thought must be sufficiently developed.Up to the age of 9 yrs.Of age however, most children attribute the death of their parent to outside forces, such as God and other (Carey, 1985).According to Rando (1988) although children 8 to 12 yrs.Of age may have a more clear perception of what death is and understand the irreversibility of the process, they may also refuse to accept it.Adolescent understanding and meaning regarding the death of a parent can be characterized as one of frightening shock and in-depth spiritual examinations.The adolescent is capable of these processes due to what Piaget termed the Formal Operating Stage of development (Longress, 2000; Berger, 2001).A questioning of spirituality and ones mortality can also be associated with Erickson's stages of development in regards to adolescents finding and understanding their social and human identities within this stage (Longress, 2000; Berger, 2001; Anderson et.Al., 1999).According to Littlewood (1992) it was indicated by studies from Anderson (1949), Bunch (1971) and Birtchnell (1975) that adults who lose parents react with tendencies to.Have increases regarding..1.Suicide ideation.2.Rates of suicide.3.Rates of clinical depression.According to Littlewood (1992).Figure 1.2.Reactions and feelings related to the loss of a parent as an adult differ according to ones age (Rando, 1988).Adults in their twenties and thirties continue to view their parents as significant support structures, and losing them my feel as if one has been robbed.Feelings of childishness and regression is common and should not be repressed or ignored (Rando, 1988).One may find themselves utilizing their attachments to others such as children, friends, etc.In order to work through the grieving process (Rando, 1988).According to Rando (1988) it should be understood that the emotional nature of the relationship between the adult and parent will effect how the adult works through the grieving process.With this information one could hypothesize that the more an adult is undifferentiated in their identity in regards to the emotional parental relationship; the more difficulty they will have with separation (McGoldrick, 1998).This also would be consistent with Attachment Theory and the reactions associated with separation in regards to utilizing other constructed attachments in the absence of the parental primary (Davies, 2004).According to Littlewood (1992) a study by Sanders (1980) regarding grieving scales indicated that parents who lose their parents reacted high in two areas..1.Increased death anxiety.2.Loss of control.According to Littlewood (1992).Figure 1.3.According to Littlewood (1992) the increased anxiety is the result of the adult child feeling as if the are next in the generational line to experience death.The loss of control represents the loss of an important and unique relationship between the adult child and parent that sustained significant support features for the child (Littlewood, 1992; Despelder, 2005).From a gender prospective, it is believed according to Porter & Stone (1995) woman seem to indicate greater problems within the realm of relationships after a significant loss; men report greater work related problems through out the grieving process.The meaning of losing our parents can different for many adults depending on the importance of the adult child / parent relationship (Rando, 1988).The parent has been the most significant and most influential force within the lives of their children; to lose this special relationship, is to lose a great deal in regards to support, the past and childhood connections, and an interpretation of circumstances within the world (Rando, 1988).These changes according to Rando (1988) & Despelder (2005) may place an adult in the position and process of no longer viewing themselves as a child; thus called the "developmental push." According to Despelder (2005), Rando (1988) & Littlewood (1992), the loss of the mother is usually more severe for adults than the loss of a father.This information is based on two primary factors..1.The mother is usually the most nurturing.2.The mother is usually the last parent to experience death.Despelder (2005), Rando (1988) & Littlewood (1992) Figure 1.4.Losing a parent within adulthood also means "not having a home" to go back to which can leave a person feeling alone and frightened (Rando, 1988).It seems clear that the death of a parent and its meaning can be commonly stated as a process that will force the adult child to redefine themselves, their roles, and expectations for their lives and the lives of their family of procreation.According to Irish, Lundquist and Nelsen (1993) how cultures react and define meaning of death and loss of a parent varies.When examining the behaviors and perceptional meanings of death in various societies of the world, differences are evident between collectivistic / naturalistic cultures and individualistic / modernized cultures (Kalish, 1977).One primary difference that can be identified is the blame and reasons for ones death across cultures.Within modern societies death can be attributed to internal body failures due to poor nutrition and health maintenance (Kalish, 1977).Within our modernized society we may blame the person or parent for creating internal processes that led to their own deaths; like smoking, poor eating habits, etc.(Kalish, 1977).Within other cultures, especially isolated societies external agents would be to blame for the death of a parent, such as evil spirits or magic (Kalish, 1977).Other grief differences across cultures include examples of muted grief, excessive grief, somatization, and excessive grief (Irish et.Al., 1993).According to Irish et.Al., (1993) in Bali if one does not remain emotionally calm and mute their grief process after the death of a parent or any loved one, sorcery and magic may place a person vulnerable to harm.Irish et.Al., (1993) indicates Wikan's (1988) investigation of Egyptian culture expressed excessive grief through constant suffering and bereavement over an extended period of time.According to Oltjenbruns (1998) a study comparing scores upon the Grief Experience Inventory between Mexican students and Anglo students expressed that Mexican student's results expressed much higher somatization scores, thus indicating that Mexican culture seems to express greater amounts of somatization due to loss.Violent grief and rage seem to be expressed across most cultures; the initiation of this rage or violence seems to be connected to external circumstances; such as other cultures or other people who caused the death of a loved one (Irish et.Al., 1993; Kalish, 1977; Archer, 1999).According to Rando (1977) if children do not resolve their grief; complications can develop, such as; psychosomatic illness, psychological disturbances, adjustment disorders and behavior issues (p.1999).One strategy according to Rando (1977) is for a therapist to facilitate the withdrawal of attachment from the deceased and make attempts to redirect the emotional energies in another primary figure in the child's life.This process of course would include identifying primary support structures that assist in sustaining the child's emotional, psychological, and social well being (Littlewood, 1992).Support structures could be identified as either formal or informal processes (Littlewood, 1992).It seems to be important to utilize professional support to assist a child as well as family before, during and after the death of a significant loved one, such as a parent (Littlewood, 1992).During these processes it would also be useful according to Littlewood (1992) to utilize informal supports; such as family members and others to assist with reducing psychological and emotional distress within the child or adults.It would seem that a therapist would be obligated to assess the roles, expectations and culture of the family and children before initiating any informal or formal interventions.According to Rando (1977) children may at times act as if they are playing death games or acting out the funeral activities; however this is their way of coping and taking a break from their grief.Because children also have difficulty expressing their feelings, thoughts, and memories of the lost parent, it is important that a therapist assist with facilitating emotional expression (Rando, 1977; Despelder, 2005).Ways of gaining a child's attention and assisting them with expressing this emotion is to utilize book readings by authors who have written stories that relate to childhood grief (Despelder, 2005).Other strategies a therapist could utilize is art therapy and support group interventions to express emotional and psychological processes (Despelder, 2005).Processes and supports for adults who have lost their parents and others are important processes that will assist adults through the grieving process.When assisting adults in coping with the loss of their parent it is important to understand that there are gender differences in coping with loss (Archer, 1999).According to Archer (1999) women tend to utilize greater emotional expression and emotional components to cope with the loss of a parent.Men it is believed, utilize problem solving strategies throughout their grieving process (Archer, 1999).According to Gallagher, Lovett, Hanley-Dunn, & Thompson (1989) woman seem to utilize cognitive process in order to work through the grieving process, where as men were indicated as utilizing "keeping busy" types of activities.One could hypothesize that a therapist would have to develop therapeutic interventions that would utilize these innate way's of coping according to one's layered identity, such as with gender.With this knowledge, Worden (2002) clarifies that a counselor should primarily seek goals that facilitate acknowledging the reality of the loss, to help the person with expressed and latent affect, to assist with problems related to readjustment and to assist the person with remembering the deceased while feeling good about moving on within their own lives (p.52).In concluding, one must understand that with the loss of a parent, the roles and expectations of those left behind will have dramatic effect upon them and the ways in which a social workers must intervene.It becomes apparent that through out the grieving process for children or adults primary considerations must be applied.Gaining better understandings of child and adult reactions and meanings of parental loss, examining the information through a cultural and gender perspective and utilizing coping and support processes to assist the bereaved is of great importance.________________________________________________________.References.Anderson, R.E.Carter, I., & Lowe, G.R., (1999).Human Behavior in the Social.Environment; A Social Systems Approach.5th ed.New York. Aldine De Gruyter Inc.Archer, J.(1999).The Nature of Grief; The Evolution and Psychology of Reactions to.Loss.New York. Routledge.Berger (2001).The Developing Person Through the Life Span.New York,. Worth.Publishers.Carey, S.(1985).Conceptual Change in Childhood.Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.Davies, D.(2004).Child Development; A Practitioners Guide.2nd Edition.New York..Guilford Press.Despelder, L.A.& Strickland, A.L.(2005) The Last Dance; Encountering Death and Dying.7th Edition.New York. McGraw-Hill.Fox, V.C., & Quitt, M.H.(1980).Loving, Parenting, and Dying. the Family Circle in.England and America, Past and Present.New York. Psychohistory Press.Gallagher, D., Lovett, S., Hanley-Dunn, P.And Thompson, L.W.(1989).Use of.Select coping strategies during late-life spousal bereavement.In D.A.Lund (ed.),.Older Bereaved Spouses. Research with Practical Implications (pp.111- 121).New York. Hemisphere.Irish, D.P., Lundquist, K.F., & Nelsen, V.J.(1993).Ethnic Variations in Dying,.Death, and Grief; Diversity in Universality.Philadelphia. Taylor & Francis.Kalish, R.A.(1977).Death and Dying; Views from Many Cultures.New York. Bay.Wood Publishing Company.Littlewood, J.(1992).Aspects of Grief; Bereavement in Adult Life.New York..Routledge.Longress, J.E.(2000).Human Behavior in the Social Environment.3rd Edition.New.York. Peacock Inc.McGoldrick, M.(1998).Re-Visioning Family Therapy; Race, Culture, and Gender in Clinical Practice, New York.NY. Guilford Press.Oltjenbruns, K.A., (1998).Ethnicity and the Grief Response. Mexican American vs.Anglo American College Students.Journal of Death Studies, 22 (2), 141-155.Porter, L.S.& Stone, A.A.(1995).Are there really gender differences in coping? A.Reconsideration of previous data and results from a daily study.Journal of Social.And Clinical Psychology, 14, 184-202.Rando, T.A.(1988).Grieving; How to Go on Living When Someone You Love Dies.Canada. Lexington Books.Weenolsen, P.(1988).Transcendence of Loss over the Life Span.New York. Book.Crafters.Worden, J.W.(2002).Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy.3rd Edition.New York..Springer Publishing Company.
The U.S.Department of Labor's recent estimate reveals the country would be in need of a million registered nurses in the next 5-6 years.Now, if you are a graduate in any discipline and looking for employment, you are probably at the right place at the right time.The new accelerated nursing program is designed with people like you in mind.This program offers you the chance to qualify as a registered nurse at a quick pace and start earning.So if you enjoy being of service to others, yet do not have the time to spend 3-4 years for further study, then you should apply for this program.Just read up on the accelerated nursing program requirements listed below and gear up for the program.What is the Accelerated Baccalaureate and Master's Degrees in Nursing?The fast-track or accelerated baccalaureate program in nursing can be completed in 11 to 18 months.On completion of your study you become a registered nurse (RN).The accelerated master's degree in nursing takes about three years to complete.Both the programs are intensive, completing programmatic objectives in a short time; the learning process in the accelerated programs builds extensively on your previous education experience.The program provides you with equal hours of clinical exposure as you would in a traditional nursing course.These courses are held in 43 states across the US, in the District of Columbia and Guam.At present there are nearly 270 accelerated baccalaureate programs and more than 70 fast-track master's programs available in America.You must be a graduate or possess a bachelor's degree in any discipline to be eligible to apply for the baccalaureate program.What Are the Accelerated Nursing Program Requirements?To be eligible you must have a minimum of a 3.0 in your Grade Point Average (GPA).Since these intensive programs are full time with no breaks for sessions you will be encouraged not to work during the study.Your application process will also require you to go through a very thorough prescreening process where your capabilities and skills will be judged.The College of Nursing runs the Accelerated Bachelor of Science in Nursing (ACC BSN) for 16 months during each fall and spring on its South Carolina campus.The basic requirements for admission are -.A 3.0 in GPA on a 4.0 scale.A 'C' grade in the prerequisite courses.You must have passed in 3 out of 4 science courses - human anatomy, physiology, microbiology and elective science.3 references.A 100-word essay.A resume.Volunteer or work experience in a healthcare facility is an added qualification.Prerequisites for Graduate Applicants.If you are a graduate you must have gone through the following courses by the time you complete your studies at the College of Nursing.These are..Life span human growth and development.Human anatomy.Human physiology.Microbiology.Statistics.Science elective.Prerequisites for under graduates are..English composition/literature.Lifespan human growth and development.Human anatomy.Human physiology.Microbiology.Statistics.Science elective.Social science and humanities electives.General electives.The application deadlines in the College of Nursing are as follows..January 15 for regular admissions and November 15 for priority admissions for fall semesters;.September 15 for regular admissions and August 15 for priority admissions for spring semesters.What Scholarships Are Given in this Program?Scholarships or financial aid for students in the accelerated nursing program is still not wide-spread.Some of the nurse employers who are doing their bit are the Carondelet Health Network, Tenet Healthcare, and North Carolina Baptist Hospital, Duke University Health System,University of Missouri Health Care and some others.
To reinforce this fact, and as a motivated person you already know, you already have it in you. the most powerful means to achieve anything you want in life.This is true for every individual as well.Imagine what it would be like, if you discover, or learn how to unleash that unlimited power. your own mind, and apply this power in similar ways as the most successful individuals do.Now keep an open mind and keep reading.Your health, wealth, professional success, and all personal achievements you may get in life are directly linked to the primary dominant attitude you feel about yourself.Current controlled studies found that people with a positive attitude about aging, by and large live an average of 7.5 years longer than those with negative attitudes.But, there is even more.Optimistic attitudes toward aging seemed to favorably influence not just longevity but also the course of achieving a successful life.Positive feelings about life in general are the influential factors most commonly found in all high achieving individuals that reach success in anything in life, including health, wealth, family, and personal relationships.Individuals with positive attitudes come into view healthier, happier than even those that seek medical means and drugs in dealing with health issues, like seeking to reduce their high cholesterol levels, or control their high blood pressure.Positive optimistic feelings even seem more beneficial to their health than smoking cessation and exercise.Do You Know Why We Age?Unconsciously during the early periods of life, we accept some negative concepts about aging.We agree to these negative beliefs without questioning their validity.And when we grow older, these negative stereotypes become even more relevant.Now, we know that these negative views may actually have a real negative impact in how long we live, and affect the quality of our remaining life.Currently we know with conviction that in the past, at the beginning of civilization, when lifespan was shorter, our genes did not develop enough or more of what was needed at that specific period.There was no need to develop ways to keep us going through a longer lifespan.The cave man reached optimum physical fitness at 30, but was most likely dead at 40.There was no need to build the human body for a longer lifespan.Life then was brutal and truly short.Despite all breakthroughs in medical science, the existing facts consider that biologically speaking, today we're still living with bodies that were intended and planned for the Stone Age and not for life in the 21st century.Body, Mind and Soul.A healthy person must develop in body, mind, and soul to reach a full significant life.We know that the purpose of life is development.Everything that is alive has an unrestricted, unlimited, absolute right to reach all the development and success it is capable to achieve. the use of all the tools that may be necessary to accomplish the full physical, mental and spiritual development."Every person naturally wants to become all that they are capable of becoming.This desire to realize innate possibilities is inborn.We can not help wanting to be all we can be.Success in life is becoming what you want to be".W.Wattles.I don't know what stage in life you are now.Maybe you already reached your goals and success, or still searching for it, or ready to become a success now.From all we know at this time, the way to achieve success in life, in health, or wealth, is not a matter of age; people become successful at any age.It is not a matter of education either; the world is full of educated people, but only a few real successful.It is not a matter of race or color, sex, nationality or language, or vocation either.All these observations are the fundamental message that the most prominent world motivational, self improvement, psychology speakers, mentors and authors, are determined to get across to everyone willing to listen.That the only real difference between a successful individual and the rest is that the successful person's mind either naturally or because of training, learned to do things in a certain way.You already know, or have heard that, your mind - or plainly the way you use it- is the most powerful tool you already got to achieve anything you want in life.However, since everyone has a mind, you may ask, why doesn't everybody use it to create the life they dream about? Why do most people use this unlimited universal mental power against themselves, instead of for themselves?That is the million dollar question that the successful individual seems to have discovered.You are encouraged and free to find out how you can also get everything you want, if you really desire to be successful.No matter what stage in life you are.
In 1954, Torrance, California family counsellor Dorothy Law Nolte dashed off a poem in order to meet a deadline for her weekly newspaper column.Called "Children Learn What They Live," its nineteen lines went on to be translated into thirty-five languages.It was distributed to millions of new parents by a baby products company.And in 2005, Crown Prince Naruhito of Japan said he was raising his three-year-old daughter according to its positive verses.What Dr.Nolte was expressing in her simple way over half a century ago is simply this. parenting styles affect development.Positive parenting styles affect development positively, and negative parenting styles affect development negatively.Positive parenting styles are those which not only notice, but acknowledge and praise the good behaviors in children.Children who receive this sort of affirmation develop confidence, high self-esteem, and an eagerness to engage in more of the behavior which will pay off in more praise.Negative parenting styles affect development in just the opposite way.Negative parents jump on all the mistakes which children cannot avoid making, correcting them harshly and even humiliating the children.Even worse, a negative parenting style simply takes for granted what a child does right or well, and never offers praise of encouragement because good behavior is simply expected.Parenting styles affect development for either good or bad, and parents need to know that a conscious decision in favor of a positive parenting style is not only an option, but a responsibility.While many people have children without having made the conscious decision to do, loving those children and to remaining in touch with the idea that parenting styles effect the development of those children are choices they can make each and every day.Children are terrific observers, and one of the benefits of knowing that parenting style affect development is in realizing that children mirror what they observe.A child who experiences positive reinforcement from his or her parents will learn to be supportive and encouraging of others.In a world where no one ever feels valued enough, raising children who truly appreciate the efforts of those around them is a high calling indeed.On the other hand, negative parenting styles affect development by controlling through intimidation and ridicule.While they may, in the short term, achieve the obedience that a parent desires, in the long term they will teach the child to fear authority and to bully others.And they only work for as long as the parent can physically intimidate the child.New parents would do very well to reflect on how their own parent's parenting styles affected their development and to honestly assess what they wish had been done differently.Being aware that they may put to much weight on their own upbringing as a guide to raising their children is a tremendous first in avoiding a parenting style which will have a negative effect on their affect their children's development.Parenting styles affect development; children learn what they live; and the simple poem of five decades ago is as true today as it was when it emerged from Dorothy Law Nolte's typewriter.
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A best-selling text unparalleled in its approach to teaching human development, Berk’s Development Through the Lifespan is relied upon in classrooms worldwide for its clear, engaging writing style, exceptional cross-cultural focus, rich examples, and long-standing commitment to presenting the most up-to-date scholarship while also offering students research-based, practical applications that they can relate to their personal and professional lives.
